Recomendaciones para el manejo de las infecciones respiratorias agudas bajas en menores de 2 años. Actualización 2021 / Recommendations for the management of acute lower respiratory infections in children under 2 years of age. Update 2021

Las infecciones respiratorias agudas bajas (IRAB) continúan representando una importante causa de morbimortalidad en nuestro medio. El manejo normatizado de casos constituye una valiosa herramienta para enfrentarlas.Además de los aspectos relacionados con el diagnóstico y tratamiento de estas enfermedades, el análisis de factores de riesgo (tanto biológicos como socioambientales), desde una perspectiva local y actual, permitie implementar medidas efectivas de control y/o prevención, así como identificar aquellos pacientes susceptibles de presentar formas graves o complicaciones.Desde 1996 la Sociedad Argentina de Pediatría asumió el desafío de generar un documento que guíe el manejo integral de los pacientes con IRAB. En esta cuarta actualización se incluyen los últimos adelantos en el tema.

Acute lower respiratory infections (ARI) continue being an important cause of morbidity and mortality in our region. Standardized case management is a valuable tool to deal with them.In addition to aspects related to the diagnosis and treatment of these diseases, the analysis of risk factors (both biological and socio-environmental) from a local and current perspective, allows the implementation of effective control and/or prevention measures, as well as identifying those patients susceptible to presenting serious forms or complications.Since 1996, the Sociedad Argentina de Pediatría asumed the challenge of generating a document that guides the comprehensive management of patients with ARI. This fourth update includes the latest advances on the subject.

Actualización de la bronquiolitis aguda / Acute bronchiolitis update

La bronquiolitis aguda es una condición respiratoria frecuente en los niños menores de 2 años. Representa la principal causa de hospitalización infantil y se caracteriza por la presencia de sibilancias asociada a signos de una infección respiratoria alta. El agente etiológico más común es el virus respiratorio sincicial. Existe una falta de consenso con respecto a su definición clínica; y por ello, su tratamiento varía en todo el mundo. El diagnóstico es clínico, sin necesidad de emplear laboratorio o imágenes en forma rutinaria. Diversas revisiones han demostrado que los broncodilatadores, adrenalina, corticoides y antibióticos, entre otros, carecen de eficacia por lo que no se sugiere su empleo. El tratamiento sigue siendo de soporte, mediante la administración de oxígeno y manteniendo una adecuada hidratación. Cuando no se logra disminuir el trabajo respiratorio o corregir la hipoxemia se puede utilizar la presión positiva en la vía aérea para prevenir y controlar la insuficiencia respiratoria. Este artículo desarrolla una breve revisión de las principales características clínicas, epidemiológicas, radiológicas, así como algunos de los diferentes tratamientos publicados en las últimas dos décadas.

Acute bronchiolitis is a common respiratory condition in children under 2 years old. It represents the main cause of childhood hospitalization characterized by the presence of wheezing associated with signs of an upper respiratory infection. The most common etiologic agent is respiratory syncytial virus. There is a lack of consensus regarding its clinical definition; and therefore, its treatment varies around the world. Diagnosis is clinical, without the need for routine laboratory or imaging. Various reviews have shown that bronchodilators, epinephrine, corticosteroids, and antibiotics, among others, lack efficacy, so their use is not suggested. Treatment continues to be supportive, by administering oxygen and maintaining adequate hydration. When it is not possible to reduce the work of breathing or correct the hypoxemia, positive airway pressure can be used to prevent and control respiratory failure. This article develops a brief review of the main clinical, epidemiological, and radiological characteristics, as well as some of the different treatments published in the last two decades.

Caracterización de prematuros ingresados por bronquiolitis en el Hospital Nacional de Niños / Characterization of premature patients admitted for bronchiolitis at the National Children's Hospital

Resumen Antecedentes: La bronquiolitis es la infección del tracto respiratorio inferior más frecuente en lactantes. El virus respiratorio sincicial es el principal agente y responde hasta por un 85 % de los casos. Los principales factores de riesgo asociados son: sexo masculino; lactantes menores; prematuros; patologías médicas de fondo como: cardiopatía congénita, displasia broncopulmonar, síndrome de Down y enfermedades neuromusculares; así como otros factores ambientales y sociales. El objetivo de este estudio fue caracterizar los prematuros, el tratamiento utilizado, el perfil de la inmunofluorescencia viral, las complicaciones, el uso de palivizumab y los costos de hospitalización en pacientes hospitalizados por bronquiolitis durante enero de 2011 y diciembre de 2011. Pacientes y métodos: Estudio observacional, descriptivo, basado en la revisión retrospectiva de expedientes clínicos de una serie de pacientes hospitalizados en el Hospital Nacional de Niños de la Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social. Se incluyeron todos los pacientes menores de 2 años egresados con el diagnóstico de bronquiolitis durante 2011, con el antecedente de prematuridad (menor de 37 semanas de edad gestacional). Resultados: Se incluyó un total de 141 pacientes; un 63 % (n=89) de sexo masculino, promedio de edad 5,7 meses (rango 0-24). Un 43 % (n=61) de los pacientes manifestó bronquiolitis antes de los 3 meses de edad. Con respecto a la edad gestacional, se obtuvo que el 35,46 % de los pacientes eran de 32 a 35 semanas, de 35 a 37 semanas un 31,2 %, de 30 a 32 semanas un 19,86 % y el resto menores de las 29 semanas. En 93 niños (66 %) se anotó el antecedente de tabaquismo en el entorno del hogar; de forma específica, en 17 % de estos pacientes se presentó el antecedente de tabaquismo pasivo, al reportarse que el padre o el abuelo eran los fumadores activos. El antecedente heredofamiliar de asma fue positivo en el 41,8 %. Con respecto al tratamiento recibido durante su hospitalización, el 100 % ameritó oxígeno suplementario y un 61 % recibió nebulizaciones con salbutamol; los esteroides sistémicos se utilizaron en el 33 % de los pacientes y solo en un 29 % se utilizó la terapia antibiótica. Un 28 % de la población estudiada presentó complicaciones, de los cuales 28 (19,86 %) prematuros ameritaron soporte ventilatorio. El hallazgo de atelectasia en la radiografía de tórax se evidenció en el 7,8 % de los pacientes. Únicamente un 4,25 % de los pacientes tuvo una sobreinfección bacteriana. Debido a la dificultad de los accesos venosos de este grupo de niños, 14 (9,93 %) ameritaron la colocación de catéter venoso central. El rango de estancia hospitalaria fue de 1 a 31 días, con un promedio de 7; la hospitalización en la Unidad de Cuidados Intensivos alcanzó un rango de 5 a 18 días, con un promedio de 10, y el promedio de la necesidad de ventilación mecánica asistida fue de 8,2 días, y de cánula de alto flujo de 2,8 días. Únicamente un 6,38 % (n=9) tenía el antecedente de haber recibido profilaxis con palivizumab: la mayoría había recibido más de dos dosis y ninguno de los pacientes había completado el esquema de las 5 dosis. Durante 2011, el Hospital reportó que el costo promedio diario fue de ¢ 766 476. Con un total de 1001 días de hospitalización acumulada, se estimó un costo directo de ¢ 767 242 142, equivalente a $ 1 522 306 (dólares estadounidenses). Conclusión: El perfil de los prematuros en este estudio es muy similar a lo reportado internacionalmente, por ser un grupo de prematuros con prevalencia más elevada de complicaciones que la población pediátrica general. Dado el costo que implica el internamiento de estos pacientes, es necesario evaluar la aplicación de intervenciones como el palivizumab para prevenir la hospitalización y disminuir otros costos al sistema de salud solidario.

Abstract Background: Bronchiolitis is the most common lower respiratory tract infection in infants. Respiratory Syncytial Virus is the main agent and responds in up to 85% of cases. The main associated risk factors are: male sex, young infants, premature infants, underlying medical conditions such as: congenital heart disease, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, Down syndrome and neuromuscular diseases; as well as other environmental and social factors. The objective of this study was to characterize preterm infants, the treatment used, the viral immunofluorescence profile, complications, the use of palivizumab, and hospitalization costs in patients hospitalized for bronchiolitis during January 2011 and December 2011. Methods: An observational, descriptive study, based on a retrospective review of clinical records of a series of hospitalized patients at the National Children's Hospital (HNN) of the Costa Rican Social Security Fund. All patients under 2 years of age who were discharged with a diagnosis of bronchiolitis during 2011, with a history of prematurity (less than 37 weeks gestational age) were included. Results: A total of 141 patients were included, 63% (n = 89) were male, with an average age of 5.7 months (range 0-24). 43% (n = 61) of patients with Bronchiolitis manifested before 3 months of age. With regard to gestational age, it was found that 35.46% of the patients were between 32 and 35 weeks, 31.2% from 35 to 37 weeks, 19.86% from 30 to 32 weeks and the rest were under 29 weeks. In 93 children (66%) a history of smoking was noted in the home environment; specifically, 17% of these patients had a history of passive smoking as the father or grandfather was reported as active smokers. In relation to the hereditary family history of asthma, it was positive in 41.8%. Regarding the treatment received during their hospitalization, 100% required supplemental oxygen and 61% received nebulizations with salbutamol; systemic steroids were used in 33% of patients and antibiotic therapy was used in only 29%. 28% of the population studied presented complications, of which 28 (19.86%) premature babies required ventilatory support. The finding of atelectasis on the chest X-ray occurred in 7.8% of the patients. Only 4.25% of the patients had a bacterial superinfection. Due to the difficulty of the venous access in this group of children, 14 (9.93%) of them required the placement of a central venous catheter. The range of hospital stay was from 1 to 31 days with an average of 7 days, hospitalization in the Intensive Care Unit reached a range of 5 to 18 days with an average of 10 days and the average need for assisted mechanical ventilation It was 8.2 days and the high-flow cannula was 2.8 days. Only 6.38% (n = 9) had a history of having received prophylaxis with Palivizumab, the majority had received more than two doses, and none of the patients had completed the 5-dose schedule. During that year 2011, the hospital reported that the average daily cost was ¢ 766 476; With a total of 1001 cumulative hospitalization days, a total direct cost of ¢ 767 242 142 was estimated, equivalent to $ 1 522 306 (US dollars). Conclusion: The profile of the characteristics of premature infants in this study is very similar to that reported internationally, as it is a group of premature infants with a higher prevalence of complications than the general pediatric population. Given the cost involved in the hospitalization of these patients, it is necessary to evaluate the application of interventions such as palivizumab to prevent hospitalization and reduce other costs to the solidarity health system.

Conocimiento de los cuidadores de los niños con diagnóstico de bronquiolitis ingresados en el Hospital Nacional de Niños / Knowledge of caregivers of children with diagnosis of bronchiolitis hospitalized in at the National Children's Hospital

Resumen Justificación y objetivo: La bronquiolitis representa la causa más importante de infección respiratoria de vías inferiores durante el primer año de vida, y la razón más importante de hospitalizaciones más allá del periodo neonatal. Usualmente, se asocia con costos substanciales directos e indirectos, tanto para el sistema de salud como para las familias y la sociedad. El desconocimiento por partede los encargados de la enfermedad puede tener dos consecuencias: el mal uso de los servicios de salud llenando los servicios de emergencias y la atención tardía. Este estudio buscó identificar los conocimientos basales que poseen los cuidadores de los niños con bronquiolitis, con el fin de detectar las deficiencias y fortalezas de la educación brindada por nuestro sistema de salud. Métodos: Se realizó un estudio transversal, basado en encuesta brindada a 256 cuidadores de niños con bronquiolitis. Para el cálculo muestral se utilizó el programa de Win episcope, con una potencia del 80 % y un nivel alfa de 0,05, basados en un 30 % de prevalencia de bronquiolitis en la población general menor de 2 años; obtenidos los datos, se realizó su análisis descriptivo. Resultados: La edad promedio de los cuidadores fue de 27,3 años (DE 7,6 años) y la edad promedio de los niños hospitalizados fue de 5,7 meses (DE 5,4 meses). El cuidador primario en el 91,5 % de los casos era la madre. En cuanto a nivel académico, un 60 % de la población tenía estudios secundarios inconclusos y del 40 % restante, solo el 17,8 % obtuvo un título universitario. El 25 % de los cuidadores reportó que los niños tenían exposición a fumado pasivo. En cuanto al conocimiento basal sobre la bronquiolitis, el 95 % indicó que se debe a un virus; el 89,4 %, a transmisión principalmente por vía aérea. Entre los síntomas de inicio de la enfermedad, se indicó: fiebre, 88,9 %; irritabilidad, 87,5 %, y rinorrea, 61,2 %. Sobre datos de empeoramiento, el 99,6 % identificó la dificultad para respirar y el 82,1 %, problemas para alimentarse. Con respecto al tratamiento, el 45,3 % de la población afirmó que la bronquiolitis siempre amerita antibióticos. Además, se obtuvo un alto conocimiento de medidas preventivas, como lavado de manos (98,7 %), no exposición a tabaco (94,8 %) y estornudar con técnica correcta (93,7 %). Por otro lado, el conocimiento de los signos de alarma fue deficiente: el aleteo nasal y la cianosis mostraron porcentajes cercanos al 50 %, seguidos por taquipnea, retracciones y, en último lugar, la poca respuesta al medio. Sobre los métodos de información sugeridos, un 44,8 % indicó carteles y panfletos, un 22,9 %, charlas y talleres, un 18,8 % medios de comunicación y revistas, un 11,5 % redes sociales y un 2,1 % información verbal por parte del médico. Conclusión: La población del estudio presentó un alto conocimiento sobre la etiología, transmisión, síntomas de inicio, datos de empeoramiento y medidas preventivas de la bronquiolitis. Las áreas de conocimiento más deficientes fueron: tiempo promedio de duración, tratamiento, factores de riesgo del niño para complicaciones y datos de alarma para reconsultar al Servicio de Emergencias. Se debe hacer énfasis en la información más útil a la hora del egreso y además de reforzar la educación verbal, es preciso apoyarse de otros métodos sugeridos por la población.

Abstract Background and aim: Bronchiolitis represents the most important cause of lower respiratory tract infection during the first year of life and the most important reason for hospitalizations beyond the neonatal period. It is usually associated with substantial direct and indirect costs, both for the health system and for families and society. The lack of knowledge on the part of those in charge of the disease can have two consequences: the misuse of health services, filling emergency services or late consultation. This study sought to identify the baseline knowledge that the caregivers of children with bronchiolitis possess, in order to detect the deficiencies and strengths of the education provided by our health system. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted, based on a survey of 256 caregivers of children with bronchiolitis. For the sample calculation, the Win episcope program was used, with a power of 80% and an alpha level of 0.05 and based on a 30% prevalence of bronchiolitis in the general population younger than 2 years; once the data was obtained, a descriptive analysis of these was performed. Results: The average age of caregivers was 27.3 years (SD 7.6 years) and the average age of hospitalized children was 5.7 months (SD 5.4 months). The primary caregiver in 91.5% of the cases was the mother. With regard to the academic level, 60% of the population had unfinished secondary education and of the remaining 40% only 17.8% obtained a university degree. 25% of caregivers reported that children had exposure to passive smoking. Regarding baseline knowledge about bronchiolitis, 95% indicated that it is due to a virus; 89.4% transmission mainly by air. Of the symptoms of disease onset, fever 88.9%, irritability 87.5% and rhinorrhea 61.2% were indicated. On data of worsening, 99.6% identified the difficulty in breathing and 82.1% problems in feeding. With respect to treatment, 45.3% of the population stated that bronchiolitis always merits antibiotics. In addition, we obtained a high knowledge of preventive measures: hand washing 98.7%, no exposure to tobacco 94.8%, sneeze with correct technique 93.7%. On the other hand, knowledge of the warning signs was poor: nasal flutter and cyanosis showed percentages close to 50%, followed by tachypnea, retractions and ultimately the poor response to the environment. Regarding the suggested information methods, 4.8% indicated posters and pamphlets, 22.9% talks and workshops, 18.8% media and magazines, 11.5% social networks and 2.1% verbal information from the doctor. Conclusion: The study population presented a high level of knowledge about the etiology, transmission, symptoms of onset, worsening data and preventive measures of bronchiolitis. The most deficient areas of knowledge were average duration, treatment, risk factors for complications and alarm signs to consult the emergency service. Emphasis should be placed on the most useful information at the time of discharge, in addition to strengthening verbal education, it is important to rely on other methods suggested by the population to better transmit the information.

Variabilidad terapéutica en lactantes con bronquiolitis hospitalizados en unidades de cuidados intensivos latinoamericanas / Therapeutic variability in infants admitted to Latin-American pediatric intensive units due to acute bronchiolitis

Resumen: Objetivo: describir las terapias utilizadas en lactantes con bronquiolitis aguda admitidos en 20 Uni dades de Cuidados Intensivos (UCI) pediátricos miembros de LARed en 5 países latinoamerica nos. Pacientes y Método: Estudio observacional retrospectivo, multicéntrico, de datos del Registro Latinoamericano de Falla Respiratoria Aguda Pediátrica. Se incluyeron niños menores de 2 años ingresados a UCI pediátrica por bronquiolitis aguda comunitaria entre mayo-septiembre 2017. Se recolectaron datos demográficos, clínicos, soporte respiratorio, terapias utilizadas y resultados clí nicos. Se realizó análisis de subgrupos según ubicación geográfica, tipo financiación y presencia de academia. Resultados: Ingresaron al registro 1155 pacientes con falla respiratoria aguda. Seis casos fueron excluidos por no tener formulario completo. De los 1147 pacientes, 908 eran menores de 2 años. De ellos, 467 tuvieron diagnóstico de bronquiolitis aguda, correspondiendo a la principal causa de ingreso a UCI pediátrica por falla respiratoria aguda (51,4%). Las características demográficas y de gravedad entre los centros fueron similares. El soporte máximo respiratorio más frecuente fue cánula nasal de alto flujo (47%), seguido por ventilación mecánica no invasiva (26%) y ventilación mecánica invasiva (17%), con un coeficiente de variación (CV) amplio entre los centros. Hubo una gran dispersión en uso de terapias, siendo frecuente el uso de broncodilatadores, antibióticos y corticoides, con CV hasta 400%. El análisis de subgrupos mostró diferencias significativas en soporte respiratorio y tratamientos utilizados. Un paciente falleció en esta cohorte. Conclusión: Detectamos gran variabilidad en el soporte respiratorio y tratamientos entre UCI pediátricas latinoamericanas. Esta variabilidad no es explicada por disparidades demográficas ni clínicas. Esta heterogeneidad de tratamientos debería promover iniciativas colaborativas para disminuir la brecha entre la evidencia científica y la práctica asistencial.

Abstract: The objective of this study was to describe the management of infants with acute bronchiolitis admit ted to 20 pediatric intensive care units (PICU) members of LARed in 5 Latin American countries. Pa tients and Method: Retrospective, multicenter, observational study of data from the Latin American Registry of Acute Pediatric Respiratory Failure. We included children under 2 years of age admitted to the PICU due to community-based acute bronchiolitis between May and September 2017. Demo graphic and clinical data, respiratory support, therapies used, and clinical results were collected. A subgroup analysis was carried out according to geographical location (Atlantic v/s Pacific), type of insurance (Public v/s Private), and Academic v/s non-Academic centers. Results: 1,155 patients were included in the registry which present acute respiratory failure and 6 were excluded due to the lack of information in their record form. Out of the 1,147 patients, 908 were under 2 years of age, and out of those, 467 (51.4%) were diagnosed with acute bronchiolitis, which was the main cause of admission to the PICU due to acute respiratory failure. The demographic and severity characteristics among the centers were similar. The most frequent maximum ventilatory support was the high-flow nasal can nula (47%), followed by non-invasive ventilation (26%) and invasive mechanical ventilation (17%), with a wide coefficient of variation (CV) between centers. There was a great dispersion in the use of treatments, where the use of bronchodilators, antibiotics, and corticosteroids, representing a CV up to 400%. There were significant differences in subgroup analysis regarding respiratory support and treatments used. One patient of this cohort passed away. Conclusion: we detected wide variability in respiratory support and treatments among Latin American PICUs. This variability was not explained by demographic or clinical differences. The heterogeneity of treatments should encourage collabora tive initiatives to reduce the gap between scientific evidence and practice.

A azitromicina administrada para bronquiolite aguda pode ter um efeito de proteção na sibilância recorrente / Azithromycin administered for acute bronchiolitis may have a protective effect on subsequent wheezing

RESUMO Objetivo Uma proporção significativa de lactentes desenvolve sibilância recorrente após um evento de bronquiolite aguda (BA). Estudos recentes demonstraram proteção para sibilância recorrente e menor morbidade respiratória em lactentes tratados com azitromicina durante uma crise de sibilância. O objetivo do presente estudo foi testar a hipótese de que a administração de azitromicina durante um evento BA reduz sibilos e reinternações hospitalares subsequentes. Métodos Trata-se de uma análise secundária de um estudo randomizado, duplo-cego, controlado por placebo, incluindo dados não publicados de sibilância e hospitalizações durante os seis meses iniciais após a internação por bronquiolite aguda. O estudo foi realizado em um hospital universitário terciário. Os bebês (<12 meses de idade) hospitalizados com BA foram randomizados para receber azitromicina ou placebo, administrados por via oral, por sete dias. As famílias foram contatadas por telefone aos três e seis meses após o evento agudo inicial, e responderam a um questionário padronizado para identificar sibilos recorrentes e reinternações hospitalares. Resultados Cento e quatro pacientes foram incluídos (grupo Azitromicina, n=50; grupo Placebo, n=54). Considerando o total de pacientes contatados com sucesso três meses após a hospitalização (n=70), a taxa de recorrência de sibilância no grupo da azitromicina foi significativamente menor do que no grupo placebo (RR=0,48; CI=0,24-0.98; p=0,038). Conclusões A azitromicina reduziu significativamente o risco de sibilância subsequente entre zero e três meses após a admissão hospitalar por bronquiolite aguda.

ABSTRACT Objective A significant proportion of the infants developed recurrent wheezing after an acute bronchiolitis (AB) event. Recent studies have demonstrated protection for recurrent wheeze and lower respiratory morbidity in infants treated with azithromycin during an acute respiratory wheezing. The aim of the present study was to test the hypothesis that administration of azithromycin during an AB event reduces subsequent wheezing and hospital re-admissions. Methods This is a secondary analysis of a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial, including unpublished data of wheezing and hospitalizations during the initial 6 months following admission for acute viral bronchiolitis. The study was performed in a tertiary University hospital. Infants (<12 months of age) hospitalized with AB were randomized to receive either azithromycin or placebo, administered orally, for 7 days. Families were contacted by telephone at 3 and 6 months after the initial acute event and answered to a standardized questionnaire in order to identify recurrent wheezing and hospital readmissions. Results One hundred and four patients were included (Azithromycin group, n= 50; placebo group, n=54). Considering the total of patients contacted 3 months after hospitalization (n=70), the recurrence rate of wheezing in the azithromycin group was significantly lower than in the placebo group (RR = 0.48; CI = 0.24-0.98; p = 0.038). Conclusion Azithromycin significantly reduces the risk of subsequent wheezing between 0 and 3 months after hospital admission due to acute bronchiolitis irrespective of the presence of respiratory syncytial virus.

Broncodilatadores en pacientes con bronquiolitis / Bronchodilators for bronchiolitis

La bronquiolitis es una infección respiratoria aguda baja de causa viral, de aparición invernal, que es común en bebés de 0a 12 meses de edad. Conduce a que las vías respiratorias pequeñas se inflamen y se llenen de desechos, obstruyéndose.El bebé tiene una tos fuerte, secreción nasal, generalmente fiebre y puede presentar sibilancias dificultad respiratoria ydesaturación de oxígeno. Tras la presentación de un caso en la guardia se generó una controversia científica sobre lautilidad de los broncodilatadores en pacientes con bronquiolitis. Luego de realizar una búsqueda bibliográfica y seleccionarla evidencia más reciente y de mejor calidad, se concluye que la evidencia no apoya el uso de broncodilatadores enpacientes con bronquiolitis.(AU)

Bronchiolitis is a low acute respiratory lower respiratory tract infection of viral origin, winter appearance, which is commonin babies from 0 to 12 months of age. It causes the small airways in the lungs to become inflamed and fill with debris. Theinfant has a harsh cough, runny nose, usually fever and may have wheezing, respiratory distress and oxygen desaturation.After the presentation of a case in the emergency department, a scientific controversy was generated about the usefulnessof bronchodilators in patients with bronchiolitis. After conducting a literature search and selecting the most recent and bestquality evidence, it is concluded that evidence does not support the use of bronchodilators in patients with bronchioliTIS.(AU)

Propiedades psicométricas de las escalas de gravedad de obstrucción bronquial en pediatría: Revisión sistemática y metaanálisis / Psychometric properties of scales used for grading the severity of bronchial obstruction in pediatrics: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Introducción. En pediatría, es determinante establecer precozmente la gravedad de la obstrucción bronquial (GOB). Objetivo. Evaluar las propiedades psicométricas de escalas de medición de GOB en pacientes pediátricos. Población y método. Revisión sistemática de estudios sobre validez y confiabilidad de escalas de GOB realizados en niños menores de 3 años. Se buscó en Medline, WoS, EMBASE, SciELO, Google Scholar. Los coeficientes de correlación de cada artículo fueron metaanalizados mediante el modelo de efectos aleatorios para determinar la validez de criterio y la confiabilidad a través de promedios ponderados de los coeficientes según el tamaño de la muestra. Resultados. Se incluyeron 9 artículos con un total de 2699 niños; 3 artículos presentaron calidad metodológica buena o excelente. Cuatro artículos determinaron la validez de criterio concurrente considerando la saturación de oxígeno; coeficiente de correlación ponderado -0,627 (IC 95%: de -0,767 a -0,431; p < 0,001); 2 artículos determinaron la validez de criterio convergente; coeficiente de correlación ponderado 0,809 (IC 95%: de 0,721 a 0,871; p < 0,001); 6 artículos determinaron la confiabilidad interobservador; coeficiente de correlación ponderado de 0,500 para kappa y 0,891 para coeficiente de correlación intraclase. Conclusión. La evaluación de las propiedades psicométricas para apoyar la utilidad de escalas para la estimación del constructo GOB mostró una validez de criterio de moderada a adecuada. El porcentaje de acuerdo entre observadores respecto de la medida observada (GOB) se muestra adecuado; sin embargo, hay que considerar las debilidades presentadas en el diseño de los artículos, lo cual podría afectar a la validez interna de los resultados.

Introduction. In pediatrics, identifying the severity of bronchial obstruction in an early manner is a decisive factor. Objective. To assess the psychometric properties of the scales for grading the severity of bronchial obstruction in pediatric patients. Population and Method. This was a systematic review of studies on the validity and reliability of scales for grading the severity of bronchial obstruction conducted in infants and children younger than 3 years old. The search was conducted in Medline, WoS, EMBASE, SciELO, and Google Scholar. The correlation coefficient corresponding to each article was included in a random effects model to establish the criterion validity and reliability using the weighted averages of coefficients as per the sample size. Results. A total of 9 articles were included, which accounted for 2699 children; 3 articles had an adequate or excellent methodological quality. Four articles established the concurrent criterion validity considering oxygen saturation, with a weighted correlation coefficient of -0.627 (95% confidence interval --#91;CI--#93;: -0.767 to -0.431, p 0.001); 2 articles established the convergent criterion validity, with a weighted correlation coefficient of 0.809 (95% CI: 0.721 to 0.871, p < 0.001); 6 articles established the inter-observer reliability, with a weighted correlation coefficient of0.500for kappa and 0.891 for the intraclass correlation coefficient. Conclusion. The assessment of psychometric properties to support the use of scales for grading the construct "severity of bronchial obstruction" showed a moderate to adequate criterion validity. The percentage of agreement among observers in terms of the studied measure (severity of bronchial obstruction) was adequate; however, weaknesses such as the article design should be taken into account since it may affect the internal validity of results.

Single Center Experience of Five Diffuse Panbronchiolitis Patients Clinically Presenting as Severe Asthma

Diffuse panbronchiolitis (DPB) is a bronchiolitis affecting the whole lung fields which can be treated by macrolide. Especially East Asian patients are more susceptible to diffuse panbronchiolitis. As asthma and DPB both can cause airway obstruction, differential diagnosis is important for the 2 diseases. Here we report 5 patients with DPB clinically presenting as severe asthma in Korea, who were well treated by macrolide. Among the 5 patients, 2 could stop their asthma inhalers and the other 3 could reduce asthma medications after diagnosis and treatment of DPB. In conclusion, considering DPB as differential diagnosis for asthmatics in Asian ethnic groups is important.

Bronchiolite aigüe du nourrisson de moins de 24 mois à Yaoundé (à propos de 296 cas)

OBJECTIFS. Décrire les profils épidémiologiques, cliniques et évolutifs de la bronchiolite aiguë du nourrisson à Yaoundé.MÉTHODES. L'étude était rétrospective et descriptive couvrant la période du 1er janvier 2008 au 31 décembre 2011 à l'Hôpital Gynéco-Obstétrique et Pédiatrique de Yaoundé et incluant 296 dossiers médicaux de nourrissons avec diagnostic de bronchiolite aiguë. Les critères d'inclusion étaient les nourrissons reçus en consultation et/ou admis en hospitalisation pour bronchiolite aiguë (1er ou 2ème épisode) et un âge inférieur ou égal à 24 mois. Les variables étudiées étaient d'ordre épidémiologique, clinique et évolutif. RÉSULTATS La bronchiolite aiguë était la troisième infection respiratoire basse (9,4%) et représentait 1,6% des consultations pédiatriques. Les nourrissons du sexe masculin entre 2 et 4 mois étaient les plus touchés, surtout lors de la grande saison des pluies allant de septembre à novembre avec un pic en octobre. Une prévalence saisonnière significative par rapport aux autres mois de l'année a été notée (P<0,001). Une augmentation significative de l'incidence par année a été observée avec un taux de récidive de 19,6%. Les principaux signes cliniques étaient les râles sibilants, la toux, la fièvre, les râles bronchiques, la rhinorrhée, les signes de lutte et la dyspnée. Le pronostic global était favorable dans 98,9% et une létalité de 1,1% a été notée. CONCLUSION. La bronchiolite aiguë est un problème de santé publique qui touche les jeunes nourrissons avec un pic épidémique lors de la grande saison des pluies. Son incidence est en augmentation et son pronostic globalement favorable

Manejo e diagnóstico do lactente sibilante em atendimentos de emergência / Management and diagnosis of the wheezing infant in emergency care

A sibilância é um sinal de alerta fundamental nas crianças nos primeiros anos de vida. Diversas doenças estão entre as causas desse estado sendo que asma e infecções virais são as mais comuns. O diagnóstico precoce aliado a um correto tratamento e manejo das crises são necessários à boa saúde do lactente.

Wheezing is a warning sign in the first years of life. Various diseases are among the causes of this state, and asthma and viral infections are the most common causes. Early diagnosis combined with a correct treatment and management of the exacerbations are necessary for infant health.

Chlamydia trachomatis: um importante agente de infecções respiratórias em lactentes de famílias de baixa renda / Chlamydia trachomatis: a major agent of respiratory infections in infants from low-income families

OBJETIVOS: Determinar a prevalência de infecção do trato respiratório inferior (ITRI) por Chlamydia trachomatis em lactentes internados e descrever as características clínicas, laboratoriais e radiológicas da doença. MÉTODOS: Este foi um estudo do tipo corte transversal, realizado durante um período de 12 meses. Foram incluídos todos os lactentes de até 6 meses internados consecutivamente no Centro Pediátrico Professor Hosannah de Oliveira da Universidade Federal da Bahia, em Salvador, BA, com diagnóstico clínico ou clínico-radiológico de ITRI. O diagnóstico de infecção por C. trachomatis foi realizado através da pesquisa de anticorpos da classe IgM, utilizando-se o ensaio imunoenzimático (ELISA). A prevalência de ITRI por C. trachomatis foi determinada, e foram calculadas as razões de prevalência para essa infecção e variáveis clínicas e laboratoriais. RESULTADOS: Cento e cinquenta e um lactentes realizaram sorologia para C. trachomatis, das quais 15 (9,9%) foram positivas. A infecção por C. trachomatis ocorreu unicamente entre os menores de 5 meses, principalmente naqueles menores de 2 meses. Três crianças com infecção por C. trachomatis nasceram de parto cesáreo. Conjuntivite e eosinofilia ocorreram em 33,3% dos casos. As radiografias de tórax se mostraram alteradas em 92% dos casos. Demonstrou-se associação da infecção por C. trachomatis com duração de internação superior a 15 dias (p = 0,0398) e com oxigenoterapia (p = 0,0484). CONCLUSÕES: Houve alta prevalência de ITRI por C. trachomatis na população estudada. A infecção por esta bactéria foi associada a uma forma mais grave da doença, demonstrando a importância de se investigar essa infecção na gestante de forma a evitar o adoecimento de recém-nascidos.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the prevalence of lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI) due to Chlamydia trachomatis in newborn infants and to describe the clinical, laboratory, and radiological characteristics of the disease. METHODS: A cross-sectional study carried out over a 12-month period. All infants up to 6 months of age admitted consecutively at the Centro Pediátrico Professor Hosannah de Oliveira of the Universidade Federal da Bahia in Salvador, Brazil, and diagnosed with LRTI according to clinical and/or radiological criteria were included in the study. C. trachomatis infection was diagnosed by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the detection of IgM-class antibodies. The prevalence of LRTI by C. trachomatis was determined and the prevalence ratios for the infection and clinical or laboratory variables were calculated. RESULTS: One hundred and fifty-one infants were submitted to serology for C. trachomatis and 15 (9.9%) tested positive. Chlamydial infection was found only in infants under 5 months of age, mainly in those aged under 2 months. Three of the infants with C. trachomatis infection were born by cesarean section. Conjunctivitis and eosinophilia had occurred in 33.3% of the cases. Chest X rays were abnormal in 92.0% of cases. There was an association between C. trachomatis infection and the duration of hospitalization exceeding 15 days (p = 0.0398) and oxygen therapy (p = 0.0484). CONCLUSIONS: There was a high prevalence of C. trachomatis respiratory infection in the population studied. The infection was associated with a more severe form of the disease, emphasizing the importance of testing pregnant women for this infection to avoid infection in the newborn infant.

Bronquiolite associada à exposição a aroma artificial de manteiga em trabalhadores de uma fábrica de biscoitos no Brasil / Bronchiolitis associated with exposure to artificial butter flavoring in workers at a cookie factory in Brazil

OBJETIVO: Relatar quatro casos de bronquiolite decorrente de exposição a aroma artificial de manteiga em uma fábrica de biscoitos no Brasil. MÉTODOS: Descrevemos os achados clínicos, espirométricos e tomográficos nos quatro pacientes, assim como achados de biópsia pulmonar em um dos pacientes. RESULTADOS: Os quatro pacientes eram homens jovens, não fumantes, e desenvolveram obstrução persistente ao fluxo aéreo (relação VEF1/CVF reduzida e VEF1 de 25-44% do previsto) após 1-3 anos de exposição a diacetil, sem a utilização de equipamentos de proteção individual, em uma fábrica de biscoitos. A TCAR mostrou achados indicativos de bronquiolite. Em um paciente, a biópsia pulmonar cirúrgica mostrou bronquiolite obliterante associada a células gigantes. CONCLUSÕES: A bronquiolite decorrente de exposição a flavorizantes artificiais deve ser considerada em trabalhadores com obstrução ao fluxo aéreo no Brasil.

OBJECTIVE: To report the cases of four patients with bronchiolitis caused by exposure to artificial butter flavoring at a cookie factory in Brazil. METHODS: We described the clinical, tomographic, and spirometric findings in the four patients, as well as the lung biopsy findings in one of the patients. RESULTS: All four patients were young male nonsmokers and developed persistent airflow obstruction (reduced FEV1/FVC ratio and FEV1 at 25-44% of predicted) after 1-3 years of exposure to diacetyl, without the use of personal protective equipment, at a cookie factory. The HRCT findings were indicative of bronchiolitis. In one patient, the surgical lung biopsy revealed bronchiolitis obliterans accompanied by giant cells. CONCLUSIONS: Bronchiolitis resulting from exposure to artificial flavoring agents should be included in the differential diagnosis of airflow obstruction in workers in Brazil.

Rinovirus: Frecuencia en niños con infección respiratoria aguda, no internados / Rhinoviruses: Frequency in nonhospitalized children with acute respiratory infection

Los métodos moleculares para diagnosticar rinovirus humanos (RVH) han aumentado la sensibilidad de detección. Esto ha permitido documentar la asociación entre los RVH y las infecciones respiratorias agudas (IRA) altas y bajas. La infección por RVH durante la infancia se asoció con posterior desarrollo de asma. Se estudió la frecuencia de RVH en 186 niños menores de 6 años ambulatorios con IRA (alta o baja), durante 2 años consecutivos (1/6/2008 - 31/5/2010). Se correlacionó la presencia de RVH con los antecedentes y características clínico-epidemiológicas. La detección de RVH se realizó con una RT-PCR en tiempo real que amplifica parte de la región 5' no codificante del genoma. Los virus respiratorios clásicos se estudiaron por inmunofluorescencia. En el 61% de los niños se detectó etiología viral. Las frecuencias fueron: RVH 27%, virus sincicial respiratorio (VSR) 16%, influenza A y B 9%, parainfluenza 8%, metapneumovirus 7% y adenovirus 0.5%. Se observaron coinfecciones duales en 8 casos, siendo RVH el más frecuente (en 4 de ellos). Los RVH circularon durante todo el período estudiado, con picos en invierno y primavera. No se observaron diferencias clínico-epidemiológicas significativas entre pacientes con o sin RVH, excepto un mayor porcentaje de niños afebriles con RVH. Los RVH fueron los virus más detectados en niños ambulatorios, principalmente en menores de 2 años, los segundos virus asociados a bronquiolitis, luego del VSR, y detectados tres veces más en los niños expuestos a tabaquismo pasivo (OR: 2,91; p = 0.012) que en el resto. Fueron identificados como único agente en el 28% de las bronquiolitis.

Molecular methods for human rhinoviruses (HRV) have increased the sensitivity in their diagnosis. HRV may cause acute respiratory infections (ARI) of the upper and lower respiratory tract. HRV infection during childhood is a predictor of asthma development. In this study, the HRV frequency in outpatient children with ARI was determined, and their clinical features and previous conditions were evaluated. A total of 186 respiratory samples of children under 6 year old attending the CEMIC pediatric emergency room from June 1, 2008 to May 31, 2010, were studied. Classical respiratory viruses were detected by immunofluorescence. A real time RT-PCR that amplifies part of the 5' non coding genomic region was used for HRV detection. Viral detection was obtained in 61% of children. The frequency was: 27% for HRV, 16% for respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), 9% for influenza, 8% for parainfluenza, 7% for metapneumovirus and 0.5% for adenovirus. Dual coinfection was detected in 8 children and HRV were the most frequent, detected in 4 of them. HRV circulated during the two year period of the study, with peaks during winter and spring. No clinical difference was observed between patients with or without HRV, except an increase percent of children with HRV without fever. HRV were the most frequent viruses detected in this population, mainly in children under 2 year old, the second cause of bronchiolitis after RSV and more frequently detected in children exposed to passive smoking (OR = 2.91; p = 0.012), and were detected as the sole etiologic agent in 28% of bronchiolitis.

Evaluación clínico-radiológica y clasificación de la bronquiolitis del adulto / Bronchiolar disorders: clinical-radiological assessment and classification

Bronchiolar disorders are generally difficult to diagnose. A detailed clinical history may point toward a specific diagnosis. Pertinent clinical questions include history of smoking, collagen vascular disease, inhalation injury, medication use and organ transplantation. It is important also to evaluate possible systemic and pulmonary signs of infection, evidence of air trapping, and high-pitched expiratory wheezing, which may suggest small airways involvement. Pulmonary function tests and plain chest radiography may demonstrate abnormalities; however, they rarely prove sufficiently specific to obviate bronchoscopic or surgical biopsy. High-resolution CT (HRCT) scanning of the chest is often an important diagnostic tool to guide diagnosis in these difficult cases, because different subtypes of bronchiolar disorders may present with characteristic image findings. Some histopathologic patterns of bronchiolar disease may be relatively unique to a specific clinical context but others are nonspecific with respect to either etiology or pathogenesis. Primary bronchiolar disorders include acute bronchiolitis, respiratory bronchiolitis, follicular bronchiolitis, mineral dust airway disease, constrictive bronchiolitis, diffuse panbronchiolitis, and other rare variants. Prominent bronchiolar involvement may be seen in several interstitial lung diseases, including hypersensitivity pneumonitis, collagen vascular disease, respiratory bronchiolitis-associated interstitial lung disease, cryptogenic organizing pneumonia, and pulmonary Langerhans’ cell histiocytosis. Large airway diseases that commonly involve bronchioles include bronchiectasis, asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The clinical and prognostic significance of a bronchiolar lesion is best determined by identifying the etiology, underlying histopathologic pattern and assessing the correlative clinic-physiologic-radiologic context.

Comportamiento de la bronquiolitis en pacientes ingresados / Behavior of bronchiolitis in admitted patients

INTRODUCCION: la bronquiolitis es una enfermedad aguda respiratoria baja, que ocasiona un alto número de ingresos en lactantes. OBJETIVO: identificar el comportamiento de la bronquiolitis para poder tomar decisiones y trazar estrategias sanitarias y administrativas, así como pautas institucionales para el Servicio de Urgencias, en relación con los criterios de ingreso y la prevención de los factores de riesgo modificables más frecuentes que presentan estos pacientes. MÉTODOS: estudio descriptivo, retrospectivo y transversal de 67 lactantes egresados con el diagnóstico de bronquiolitis durante los meses de septiembre 2005, febrero 2006, septiembre 2006 y febrero 2007. Se revisaron las historias clínicas de 70 lactantes, y se excluyeron 3 por no tener los elementos al examen físico para clasificar la severidad de la enfermedad. RESULTADOS: 57 pacientes fueron menores de 6 meses (85 por ciento), 43 del sexo masculino (64 por ciento), 54 de nuestros casos (80 por ciento) tuvieron una lactancia materna inadecuada, en 44 niños (66 por ciento ) existían fumadores en la vivienda, 49 de los pacientes (73 por ciento) fueron clasificados según la severidad de la enfermedad en moderados y graves. CONCLUSIONES: el 100 por ciento de nuestros pacientes presentaron algún factor de riesgo de la enfermedad, con predominio de la edad menor de 6 meses, sexo masculino, lactancia materna inadecuada o ausente, y fumadores en la vivienda. En cuanto a la severidad de la enfermedad predominaron los pacientes evaluados como moderados

INTRODUCTION: bronchiolitis is a low respiratory acute disease provoking a high number of admissions in breast-fed babies. OBJECTIVE: to identify the behavior of the bronchiolitis to take decisions and to design administrative and health strategies, as well as institutional guidelines for the Emergence Service, related to the admission criteria and prevention of the more frequent modifiable risk factors present in these patients. METHODS: a cross-sectional, retrospective and descriptive study was conducted in 67 breast-fed children discharged and diagnosed with bronchiolitis during September, 2005, February, 2006 and February, 2007. The medical records from 70 breast-fed children were reviewed excluding three of them due to a lack of elements in the physical examination to classify the severity of the entity. RESULTS: fifty five patients were aged under 6 months (85 percent), 43 of male sex (64 percent), and 54 of our cases (80 percent) had a inappropriate breastfeeding, 44 children(66 percent) had a history of family smokers, 49 of patients (73 percent) were classified as moderate and severe according the severity of the entity. CONCLUSIONS: the 100 percent of our patients had some risk factor of the disease, with predominance of an age under 6 months, male sex, inappropriate or lacking breastfeeding and a history of family smokers. As regards the severity of disease there was predominance of patients assessed as moderate

Comparison of Clinical and Radiographic Characteristics between Nodular Bronchiectatic Form of Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Lung Disease and Diffuse Panbronchiolitis

The nodular bronchiectatic form of nontuberculous mycobacterial (NTM) lung disease and diffuse panbronchiolits (DPB) show similar clinical and radiographic findings. The present study was performed to clarify the clinicoradiographic similarities as well as the differences between NTM lung disease and DPB. The initial clinicoradiographic features of 78 patients with the nodular bronchiectatic form of NTM lung disease (41 patients with Mycobacterium avium complex infection and 37 patients with Mycobacterium abscessus infection) were compared with those of 35 patients with DPB. Old age, female sex, a history of tuberculosis treatment, and hemoptysis were related to NTM lung disease while exertional dyspnea, coarse crackles, history of sinusitis, obstructive abnormalities in pulmonary function tests, and hypoxemia were related to DPB. The number of lobes involved with bronchiolitis and bronchiectasis on chest computed tomography were more numerous in DPB patients. There is considerable overlap in the clinical and radiographic appearances of the nodular bronchiectatic form of NTM lung disease and DPB, although some clinicoradiographic features differ between two diseases. The correct diagnosis, including aggressive microbiologic evaluation, should be made for the appropriate management of patients presenting with bilateral bronchiectasis and bronchiolitis.

Comparison of Clinical and Radiographic Characteristics between Nodular Bronchiectatic Form of Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Lung Disease and Diffuse Panbronchiolitis

The nodular bronchiectatic form of nontuberculous mycobacterial (NTM) lung disease and diffuse panbronchiolits (DPB) show similar clinical and radiographic findings. The present study was performed to clarify the clinicoradiographic similarities as well as the differences between NTM lung disease and DPB. The initial clinicoradiographic features of 78 patients with the nodular bronchiectatic form of NTM lung disease (41 patients with Mycobacterium avium complex infection and 37 patients with Mycobacterium abscessus infection) were compared with those of 35 patients with DPB. Old age, female sex, a history of tuberculosis treatment, and hemoptysis were related to NTM lung disease while exertional dyspnea, coarse crackles, history of sinusitis, obstructive abnormalities in pulmonary function tests, and hypoxemia were related to DPB. The number of lobes involved with bronchiolitis and bronchiectasis on chest computed tomography were more numerous in DPB patients. There is considerable overlap in the clinical and radiographic appearances of the nodular bronchiectatic form of NTM lung disease and DPB, although some clinicoradiographic features differ between two diseases. The correct diagnosis, including aggressive microbiologic evaluation, should be made for the appropriate management of patients presenting with bilateral bronchiectasis and bronchiolitis.